Food Aid

See Also: Food Security; Household Food Consumption; Infant and Child Nutrition; HIV/AIDS; Assessments, Monitoring and Evaluation

The $1.3 billion U.S. Public Law 480 Title II food aid program is USAID's largest program aimed at improving food security. Title II food aid is used in emergencies to meet the critical food needs of targeted vulnerable groups, save lives, and reduce suffering. Vulnerable groups include internally displaced people, refugees, the newly resettled or new returnees, and vulnerable resident populations. Within these populations, special attention is directed towards children under five years of age, pregnant and nursing women, malnourished children and adults, and the elderly.

In non-emergency contexts, Title II food aid is programmed in-kind and monetized to generate local currency for development activities. Title II development programs aim to enhance household nutrition and increase incomes and agricultural production and productivity through a focus on decreasing risk and increasing resilience in vulnerable, food insecure populations.

FANTA-2 works closely with USAID's Bureau for Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA) Office of Food for Peace (FFP) and its PVO and international organization partners to strengthen implementation of emergency, developmental relief, and development food aid programs and improve reporting on the impacts of the program.

	A brief description of each publication is provided below. By choosing the publication title, you are able to read a detailed description and to download the publication.

1. Emergencies in Urban Settings: A Technical Review of Food-Based Program Options (2008): Although food assistance needs in urban and peri-urban areas are expected to require increased resources in the coming years, most experience with food-based programs is in rural areas. Against this backdrop, USAID's Office of Food for Peace Occasional Paper No. 6, Emergencies in Urban Settings: A Technical Review of Food-Based Program Options, examines 11 common food-based programs to highlight advantages, disadvantages, targeting and implementation modalities in the urban context. The paper also presents tools to help determine the most appropriate interventions and approaches for given settings.

2. Sudan Food Assistance Transition Study (2007): The report provides an analysis of the key issues related to food insecurity and the high rates of malnutrition in Southern Sudan and the Three Areas (Abyei, the Nuba Mountains and Blue Nile). It examines current Title II activities and recommends how to increase their impact on food security and nutrition. The study proposes possible steps for addressing food security through development of an integrated food security strategy and by leveraging Title II and Disaster Assistance funds in a complementary manner that emphasizes the multiple transitions taking place in the areas of livelihoods, education, health, nutrition, institutions and security.

3. Food Assistance Programming in the Context of HIV (2007): Food Assistance Programming in the Context of HIV, a joint publication by WFP and FANTA, is a guide developed to improve the design and implementation of food security programs that respond to HIV-related challenges as well as HIV programs that utilize food and food-related activities to achieve HIV-related outcomes. The guide provides a set of tools, promising practices and key considerations that enhance the flexibility and appropriateness of program design and implementation modalities, and has been developed for program directors, program advisors and senior program managers who are directly involved in the analysis and formulation of food assistance strategies and country program activities at HQ and in regional and field offices.

4. Version 3 of Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for Measurement of Food Access: Indicator Guide (2007): FANTA, in collaboration with Cornell and Tufts Universities, has developed a Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) measure and a guide, "Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for Measurement of Food Access: Indicator Guide," with a standardized questionnaire and data collection and analysis instructions. The HFIAS is composed of a set of nine questions that have been used in several countries and appear to distinguish food insecure from food secure households across different cultural contexts. These questions represent universal domains of the experience of insecure access to food that can be used to assign households and populations along a continuum of severity. The information generated by the HFIAS can be used to assess the prevalence of household food insecurity (access component) (e.g., for geographic targeting) and to detect changes in the food insecurity situation of a population over time (e.g., for monitoring and evaluation). The questions can be added to a standard baseline and final evaluation survey. In August 2007, Version 3 of the guide was released. The new version offers an updated questionnaire section.

5. Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) for Measurement of Household Food Access: Indicator Guide and Months of Adequate Household Food Provisioning (MAHFP) for Measurement of Household Food Access: Indicator Guide (2007): In light of the need to build consensus on household food access impact indicators, two strategic objective level indicators of household food access (HDDS) and months of inadequate household food provisioning (MIHFP) were identified during the development of USAID Office of Food for Peace (FFP)'s FY05-08 strategy, through a process of consultation and discussion with CSs, researchers, and other technical groups. These two indicators focus on the desired outcome of improved food access - improved household food consumption. FFP will be requiring all new Title II Multi-Year Assistance Programs (MYAP) with improved household food access as an objective to include these indicators in their results frameworks. In addition, a Household Food Insecurity Scale (HFIS) to measure the experience of household food insecurity is being tested for future inclusion as an indicator. These two indicator guides provide background on the indicator as well as guidance on data collection (including questionnaire format) and analysis.

6. Journal of Nutrition Supplement, May 2006: The Journal of Nutrition has been the principal forum for disseminating US-based research on food insecurity scales. It has also published most of the studies dealing with the application of food insecurity scales in developing countries. Publication of the process of developing the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) offers the opportunity to continue this "conversation" by presenting, in one place, one of the most significant advances in food insecurity measurement to emerge over the last decade. The Journal of Nutrition Supplement, published in May 2006, presents the results of the FANTA-led HFIAS initiatives, including: findings of the first studies to develop and validate food insecurity scales from the "ground-up" in a developing country context; findings of the first cross-country study to compare the performance of the same set of food insecurity items in four dramatically different cultures; results of a cross-country review of food insecurity scale applications and its implications for the development of a universal measurement tool; and, status of the process to develop a universal measurement tool.

7. Evaluating Title II Development-oriented Multi-Year Assistance Projects (2006): Evaluating a Title II development-oriented multi-year assistance project (MYAP) involves assessing its outcomes and impacts, that is, verifying the extent to which project activities are associated with intended changes in the practices and well-being of the beneficiary population. Evaluation objectives may range from simply measuring the level of change in indicators of well-being, to attributing a change in the level of those indicators to the intervention being implemented. The focus of this Technical Note is to lay out the various evaluation design options open to Title II project managers.

8. Monitoring and Evaluation Framework for Title II Development-oriented Projects (2006): All Private Voluntary Organizations (PVOs) submitting a Title II development oriented Multi-Year Assistance program (MYAP) proposal to USAID’s Food for Peace (FFP) must include a Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) plan as part of their submission. According to USAID guidelines, the aim of the M&E plan is to measure the extent to which the activity will result in changes in behavior and well-being at the population level, as well as progress in activity implementation. This Technical Note explains how to frame a Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) system that fulfills those functions, while maximizing its usefulness to project managers.

9. Measuring Household Food Insecurity Workshop II Report, October 2005 (2006): Following the initial 2004 workshop to develop the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for use by Title II and Child Survival and Health programs, a second FANTA workshop was held on October 19, 2005. This workshop was organized for participants to refine the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) questionnaire, suggest approaches for creating meaningful indicators from the HFIAS data, and discuss a process for continued feedback and collaborative field validation of the HFIAS tool.

10. Measuring Household Food Insecurity Workshop Report (2004): During the past four years FANTA has supported activities to validate the US Household Food Security Scale (HFSS) for use in developing countries and test its usefulness as an impact indicator for the access component of food security in program evaluations. Cornell and Tufts Universities, Africare, World Vision and Freedom from Hunger have collaborated with FANTA in implementing these activities. In addition, a range of researchers and food security program managers have used and adapted the USDA approach in a number of countries in order to answer a range of different objectives. As a next step in the effort to develop simple, standardized, questionnaire-based approach to measure household food insecurity, FANTA held a two-day workshop of researchers, practitioners, USAID staff and FANTA staff. Participants at the workshop presented the results of the field validation work and took the initial steps in developing the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for use by Title II and Child Survival and Health programs. This report provides a description of the workshop and its findings.

11. Local Capacity Building in Title II Food Security Projects: A Framework (2004): This paper establishes a conceptual framework for local capacity building within food security projects. It is designed to provide Title II policy-makers and cooperating sponsors with a basic reference tool for the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of projects’ capacity building activities at the local level. This framework builds on the USAID food security framework, in which food availability, access and utilization constitute the three pillars of food security.

12. Impact of Title II MCHN Programs on the Nutritional Status of Children (2004): This paper presents the results of a recent review of the impact of Title II MCHN programs on the prevalence of stunting and underweight in target populations. Information on the impact of the Title II MCHN program on child nutritional status was available for 29 programs. The review focused on Title II MCHN programs that ended in 2000 and 2001, for which final evaluation or annual results reports with data on anthropometry were available.

13. Report on the 2002 Joint Baseline Survey in the Targeted Areas of the PL480, Title II Programs in Haiti (2003): When beginning a new program, Title II CSs must conduct a baseline survey assessing the conditions in target areas before activities begin. This provides a basis against which the progress made by the DAPs towards fulfilling their objectives can be assessed at the end of the project. This report communicates the results from the baseline survey conducted jointly by four cooperating sponsors in their targeted areas between May and July 2002 as a prelude to their new 2002-2006 programs. The findings and recommendations we provide in this report are valid for these targeted areas and cannot be extrapolated to other areas.

14. Food Access Indicator Review (2003): The measurement of food access is critical to food security programming. However, for most Title II Cooperating Sponsors (CS), determining changes in food access has not been easy, particularly because appropriate indicators are not standardized and are hard to measure and interpret. Guidance and tools to assist in measuring access indicators are limited or not readily available to the field. The objective of this study was to review how Title II Development Assistance Programs designs address food access, assess how Title II PVOs currently monitors and evaluates food access and identify good measurement practices. The results of the review will provide the basis for a follow-on food access monitoring and evaluation guide to be used by CS field staff.

15. Tajikistan Food Aid Review (2003): A USAID Food for Peace team assessed the implications of the potential close-out of USDA's food programs in Tajikistan and recommended appropriate uses of food aid, including Title II resources. The Tajikistan Food Aid Review identifies the underlying causes of high reported rates of chronic and acute malnutrition; key factors that support and constrain food availability and access; whether current food aid programming is responding appropriately to the current situation and is still recommended; and key constraints in implementing food security and food aid programs.

16. A Review of the Title II Development Food Aid Program (2003): This technical note provides an overview of the findings of the 2002 Report of the Food Aid and Food Security Assessment: A Review of the Title II Development Food Aid Program.

17. Title II Evaluation Scopes of Work (2002): This technical note is an excellent reference for managers, program implementers and evaluation teams as it provides standard items to include in Scopes of Work for process and impact evaluations. Examples of evaluation questions are given for several sectors: agriculture, infrastructure, microenterprise and microfinance, health and nutrition, and education. The evaluation questions are illustrative and can be tailored to the specific characteristics or emphases of each development assistance program.

18. Report of the Food Aid and Food Security Assessment: A Review of the Title II Development Food Aid Program (2002): The report highlights the main findings of the assessment which include: greater focus of the Title II development program on the most food insecure regions and countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa; increased programmatic emphasis on improving agricultural productivity and household nutrition, including a dramatic improvement in the design of Title II agricultural and nutrition programs with the integration of complementary activities such as technical assistance and training, largely funded by monetization, the sale of food aid commodities to generate local currencies for logistic and other program costs; better results and results reporting; and better collaboration among partners. Recognizing this progress, this assessment report identifies program weaknesses and makes recommendations to FFP, Cooperating Sponsors (CSs), Missions and other stakeholders for strengthening the program over the coming years. The importance of transparency, consistency, flexibility and communication in the management of the program by FFP is emphasized.

19. Potential Uses of Food Aid to Support HIV/AIDS Mitigation Activities in Sub-Saharan Africa (2000): This paper examines how food aid programs might support the US Agency for International Development's HIV/AIDS strategy and strengthen the ability of service providers and families to cope with the multiple impacts of HIV/AIDS. Possible options for strategies and interventions for using Title II food aid for HIV/AIDS mitigation are discussed. Situations where food aid may not be an appropriate option are identified along with some recommendations for action. See also The Potential Role of Food Aid for AIDS Mitigation in East Africa: Stakeholder Views below.

20. Food Security Indicators and Framework for Use in Monitoring and Evaluation of Food Aid Programs (1999): The purpose of this handbook is to assist in the identification of food security indicators to be used in the monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of US Title II food aid programs. Effective M&E systems are needed to ensure more efficient management of these increasingly scarce development resources and improve their ultimate impact on the lives and well-being of program beneficiaries. The handbook outlines a systematic process by which indicators can be identified in a context-specific fashion.

*Please note that links to these sites do not imply that FANTA supports either the organization listed or the views and content presented.

Commodities Reference Guide [http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/ffp/crg/]

Farm Bill 2002 - Agricultural Trade and Aid [http://www.fas.usda.gov/info/factsheets/fb2002/foodaid.html]

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping System [http://www.fivims.net/index.jspx?lang=en]

Food Security Network [http://www.foodsecuritynetwork.org]
The Food Security Network website is managed by Food for the Hungry with support from USAID's Office of Food for Peace. The website builds on the previous work of Food Aid Management and intends to broaden its scope by shifting from the food aid resource lens which characterized the focus of the Food Aid Management site. It serves the broader food security community by posting the latest technical documents, best practices and case studies from food security programs. It also serves as a place for organizations and institutions to post relevant meeting, training or other event notices along with associated links to similar sites and resources.

USAID Office of Food for Peace [http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/ffp/]

USAID Development Partners Resources [http://www.dec.org/partners/]

USDA Bill Emerson Humanitarian Trust [http://www.fas.usda.gov/excredits/foodaid/emersontrust.asp]

USDA Foreign Agricultural Service [http://www.fas.usda.gov/]

USDA Foreign Agricultural Service Food Aid Fact Sheet [http://www.fas.usda.gov/info/factsheets/foodaid.asp]

World Food Programme [http://www.wfp.org]